The Erosion of Reinforced Concrete Walls by the Flow of Rainwater Kawthar Hadja, and Fattoum Kharchi* (Received February 26, 2016, Accepted October 24, 2016, Published online February 28, 2017) Abstract: The action of rainwater on reinforced concrete walls has led to an erosion phenomenon. According to Montgomery (2007), cultivated fields from different regions mostly erode at rates typical of Alpine terrains. The model uses a daily time step and simulates the process of plant growth, soil properties and hydrologic processes. The parameters used by the hydrology and erosion components of the model that must be input by the user include soil conditions for the day of the rainfall event, crop canopy, surface residue, days since last disturbance, surface random roughness, oriented roughness, etc. Erosion caused by run-off rain water near Ponta d'Ana, Algarve, Portugal. "Erosion"(April, 2011) in Ecology Today Retrieved from: ecologiahoy.com. The severity of wind erosion is influenced by wind speed, the condition of the soil surface, and the amount of vegetation cover present. Rainfall – Rainfall can cause erosion when the rain hits the surface of the Earth. (2015) presented an analysis of published data on soil erosion rates (in units of mass per area and time), considering about 4000 sites worldwide. Once the unsteady flow calculations are made to get the runoff peak rate and duration, quasi–steady state flow is assumed at the peak rate and is partitioned into broad sheet flow for interrill erosion and concentrated flow for rill erosion. A brief description of the model is given here. As it starts to rain the force of a raindrop can pick up and loosen soil particles. Laminar erosion consists of the entrainment of soil particles by rainwater in the direction of the slope. We use cookies to provide our online service. C. Longjun, in Encyclopedia of Environmental Health (Second Edition), 2019. The model requires huge data on various variables for a good implementation; the required climatic data includes rainfall, its peak and duration, temperature data, wind velocity and direction, solar radiation, snowfall and snowmelt. For details, reference may be made to Lane and Nearing (1989). Water is an object that is powerful enough to move materials that are in the ground or on the surface of the soil. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation.Dew and fog can also be collected with nets or other tools. The channel component calculates erosion and deposition within concentrated flow areas which can be represented as permanent channels or ephemeral gullies. Rills are the shallow drainage lines that are … J.E. Wind erosion creates problems far from the initiation point with dust storms reducing air quality in urban areas and in adjoining countries in some cases. Rainwater and sea water can act as weak acids. The sediment that is loaded is routed to the catchment outlet by simulating the process of erosion and transportation. Water erosion occurs when rainfall breaks soil aggregates causing detachment and displacement of soil, either directly by means of raindrop impact or indirectly through large bodies of water. where Vf(m/s) is the effective fall velocity for the sediment, and q (m2/s) is the discharge per unit width. 12.11. For the case of deposition. Certain points on the hillslope may experience detachment during some rainfall events and deposition during other events. The irrigation component calculates erosion and deposition on border irrigation areas. During rainfall, soil splashes due to the impact of rain drops. The profiles are at or near saturation. Rainfall produces four types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, and gully erosion. 4 shows an example of soil erosion in a vineyard located in Spain. The WEPP erosion model uses a steady-state sediment continuity equation to describe the downslope movement of suspended sediment in a rill: where x (m) represents the distance downslope, G (kg/s/m) is the sediment load, Di (kg/s/m2) is the lateral sediment flow from the interrill areas, and Df (kg/s/m2) is the rill erosion or deposition rate. Erosion is caused by the bombardment of the soil surface due to raindrops, which act as small bombs falling on exposed or naked ground. Date Published: May 25th, 2018 . Specialized erosion control practices have been developed for use within stream channels, forest areas, and construction sites. These fine particles can have another effect as well. Conservation measures that have been effectively used to reduce soil erosion on agricultural areas include contouring, strip cropping, conservation tillage, terraces, buffer strips, and use of polyacrylamide on irrigated areas. Soil erosion by water (aka 'water erosion') is the result of rain detaching and transporting vulnerable soil, either directly by means of rainsplashor indirectly by rill and gully erosion. The figures included in this criterion have been obtained from the results of different forums and meetings with institutions, organizations, and native people (Grau, 2003). This reflects the ability of fine particles to form soil large aggregates that hold the soil in place during high wind events. Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Crimmins, in Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition), 2019. Fig. A drop of six millimeters weighs 216 times more than a drop of a millimeter. Field equipment can track soil into or out of a field, but this does not likely represent a significant loss or gain of soil. A channel element can receive water and sediment input from hillslope elements, upstream channel elements (up to three channel elements), or an impoundment. The mountain slope model simulates the erosion process from different types of land uses and treatment. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123002473, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444525123000097, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123485304002629, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128147191000148, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489117579, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167564803800667, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978044463402300011X, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128096659105014, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080454054008326, Agroforestry: Conservation Trees and Erosion Prevention, Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, Mathematical Models to Elaborate Plans for Adaptation of Rural Communities to Climate Change, Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition), Encyclopedia of Environmental Health (Second Edition), Water Resources Systems Planning and Management, Use of Field Experiments in Soil Erosion Research, Nikolaus J. Kuhn, ... Wolfgang Fister, in, Soil Movement by Tillage and Other Agricultural Activities. The WEPP landscape profile version model requires four input data files: a soil file, a slope profile file, a crop management file, and a climate file. Erosion may also impact water conveyance and storage structures, and … Interrill sediment delivery, and Di, is considered to be independent of x. Rill erosion, Df, is positive for detachment and negative for deposition. Ground Water Erosion and Deposition. This section introduces you to weathering and erosion, both important parts of the rock cycle. The output of the continuous simulation model represents the time-integrated estimate of erosion. Conservation Measures. Their results highlighted the effect of land use, with agricultural lands yielding the highest erosion rates. From the mechanical point of view, work must be done to erode soil and the source of energy to perform this work must be from rain drop impact and runoff in the water erosion process. The amount of soil loss is related to the soil texture and moisture content as well as the method of harvesting. The net soil detachment in rills is calculated for the case when hydraulic shear stress exceeds the critical shear stress of the soil and when sediment load is less than the sediment transport capacity. If a coastline is made up of rocks such as limestone or chalk, over time they can become dissolved by the acid in the water. A hillslope element can drain into a channel either at the headwaters or laterally, or into an impoundment. It is when the soil is broken down into smaller pieces and they become loose in the earth’s surface. When the water accumulates on the surface and increases the speed with which it drains, a network of small channels is formed. While it is mainly caused by rainfall, inter-rill erosion can be accelerated by factors such as gradient, topography, vegetative cover, and climate. Water is the main cause of erosion on Earth, being one of the most powerful forces on the planet. Action appropriate to risk. This water that travels across the land is called runoff. These results confirm the hypothesis that wind-driven rain potentially produces an increase in soil erosion rates. The authors have considered that it would be satisfactory to give employment to the majority of the population. Rainfall characteristics, soil factors, topography, climate, and land use are important elements affecting soil erosion. The relative results have been taken into the IM for this criterion. Interrill erosion is conceptualized as a process of sediment delivery to rills, whereby the interrill sediment is either carried off the hillslope by the flow in the rill or deposited in the rill. Water Erosion. The user must have file building tools and access to appropriate soil, tillage implement, plant, and climate databases in order to build the four data files. The concepts of stochastic weather generation, infiltration theory, hydrology, hydraulics, soil physics, plant science, and erosion mechanism have been used in this model. Gradual threats. Soil water erosion on cultivated lands represents a severe threat to soil resources in the world, and especially in Mediterranean areas, due to their topographic, edaphic, and climatic conditions (Prosdocimi et al., 2016). The first is rain splash, in which soil particles are knocked into the air by raindrop impact. Water erosion is the removal of soil by water and transportation of the eroded materials away from the point of removal. Arrows showing increasing trend are in accordance to the hypotheses and arrows showing decreasing trend indicate a contrary development. All these types of flowing water can cause erosion and deposition. The channel erosion and grid erosion is modelled using hydraulic concepts. Soil eroded in agricultural landscapes can also be delivered to the drainage network (Borselli et al., 2008), with direct consequences on the rates and magnitudes of floodplain sedimentation (Doolittle, 2006; Knox, 2006). Sediments deposited along the road due to soil erosion by water in the surrounding vineyards in Moixent, Valecia province (Spain). Winds erosion, transport and deposit materials and are effective agents in several areas of this region. Fig. Like water erosion, wind erosion is significantly influenced by the amount of vegetation cover; therefore, any activity that removes vegetation, such as agriculture, deforestation, or other land degradation processes, can increase wind erosion. Water can move material that is on the ground through the flow that is owned by the water. Globally, 45.2% of the desertification-prone land areas are affected by soil degradation process of water erosion, and 41.8% by soil degradation of wind erosion. Rain, rivers, floods, lakes, and the ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment. Wind erosion is caused by the action of the wind on the soil surface and is the process by which fine soil particles are carried away. For the case of rill detachment, where Dc is the detachment capacity by flow and Tc (kg/s/m) is the sediment transport capacity in the rill. Rain erosion is one of the different types of water erosion, among which are also listed: laminar erosion, furrow erosion, erosion in gullies and erosion in terracotta. Soil removed from the field with the harvested crop can be considerable for root crops such as potatoes, sugar beets, and carrots. Firstly the mats have high surface cover to prevent the rain drops from pounding into the soil. The erosion done by water is called ablation. Fig. 4. The model carries out a simulation of the physical processes that cover erosion. Sheet and rill erosion. Rivers – Rivers can create a huge amount of erosion over time. 5.1.4. As the runoff flows, it may pick up loose material on the surface, such as bits of soil and sand. Inter-rill erosion describes the movement of topsoil by rainfall and its resultant surface flow. Rain erosion can also be identified through the formation of pedestals, which is generated by fragments of gravel, small wood chips or small fragments of tree branches. This criterion is considered as ‘more is better.’. Water erosion is caused by the detachment and transport of soil by rainfall, runoff, melting snow or ice, and irrigation. Among the cultivated lands, vineyards deserve a particular attention because, aside from representing one of the most important crops for income and employment, they also have proven to be the form of agricultural use that causes one of the highest soil losses (Prosdocimi et al., 2016). Both are effectively stopped by an erosion mat. Surface residue, for example, plays an important role in terms of predicting the amount of soil lost during a given rainfall event. For that the authors have considered this criterion as of the ‘more is worst’ kind. Wind and water erosion are not the only means by which soil can be moved beyond the boundaries of a field. Retrieved from: astromia.com. Splash Erosion. Hill slopes are prone to sheet erosion and rill erosion. The function for interrill sediment delivery also includes terms to account for ground and canopy cover effects, which are discussed below. The berm will keep the water in the rain garden, so has to be well-compacted, around 30cm (1ft) wide and 10cm (6in) in height Leave a notch in the berm, with a gravel-filled channel for the water to exit into a conventional drainage system If the area is sloping, the top … For example, hills and ridges formed by erosion tend to have smoothly rounded ridges that are distinct from the sharper profiles created by other forms of water erosion. The soil profiles in most of Iowa are now filled to capacity with water. Water droplets in their downward path impact the ground and pluck particles, generating a tiny form of laminar erosion. Rainwater capture and storage system at the modern heritage property. On the other hand, air pollution is measured using the PM10 standard, which consists largely of silt-sized particles, and the PM2.5 standard, which captures mainly clay size particles. Have been established taking into account actors' opinions (Grau, 2003). Representation of watershed in WEPP erosion model. In arid zones, rainfall erosion plays an important role in landscape sculpture. In the second stage, the loose particles are moved downslope, commonly by sheetflooding. A watershed must be represented by at least one hillslope element. His results confirmed that erosion rates from conventional agriculture fields are one to two orders of magnitude greater than those of soil production. Some water from the rain is evaporated or soaked up by plants other parts of the rain sinks into the soil. Weathering also impacts artificial (human-made) objects, and even our human bodies directly. If allowed to continue, loss of vegetation, habitat and land will occur. The flow of water underground is ground water. Indeed erosion rates from agriculture are among the highest rates found for land uses (García-Ruiz and Lana-Renault, 2011). This results in significant economic loss, including replacing nutrients, recovering lost water, and recovering soil depth. Now imagine when heavy rain falls, millions of rain drops fall on the soil for many days, causing considerable soil erosion. These channels, when united, create other even larger channels, which progressively form grooves, ditches and, finally, larger caverns called"gullies". This criterion is considered as ‘more is better.’, The relative economical benefits using each alternative in a period of 25 years have been obtained. The main consequences are a loss of cultivable, fertile land, soil structure degradation, destruction of infrastructures, pollution of surface water, flood risk, etc. "What is rain splash erosion and why is it important?"Exploration. The high variability of results caused by the soil conditions presents a strong contrast to the controlled rainfall applied to the plots. Instead, it runs over the land. The model simulates erosion for some number of years and sums the total soil loss over those years for each point on the hillslope to obtain the average annual values of erosion along the hillslope. (1989) and USDA (1989). Vanderbilt's Online Research Magazine. Tolhurst, T.J., Friend, P.L., Watts, C."The effects of rain on the erosion threshold of intertidal cohesive sediments". This criterion is considered as ‘more is better.’, By each alternative, the needs of WR have been considered. Rainfall causes erosion of exposed areas in two ways; rain splash and transportation. It affects agricultural land in much of Northern Africa and the Near East; parts of Southern, Central, and Eastern Asia; Australia; Northwest China; Southern South America; and North America. The Jutland field campaign of 2011 are presented in Fig it increases, erosion can occur fine..., Algarve, Portugal during rainfall, runoff, melting snow or ice and. 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